Fig. 1

The dual roles of leptin and other adipokines in metabolic regulation and cardiovascular diseases. Leptin modulates appetite via the hypothalamus and promotes lipolysis, but obesity-induced leptin resistance leads to metabolic dysregulation, triggering vascular inflammation, oxidative stress, and atherosclerosis while activating monocytes/macrophages and stimulating vascular smooth muscle proliferation. IL-6 upregulates CRP to drive inflammatory plaque progression; adiponectin maintains metabolic homeostasis through anti-inflammatory actions; resistin exacerbates metabolic disorders via insulin resistance and pro-atherogenic mechanisms. Visceral adipose tissue secreting pro-inflammatory factors (TNF-α, CRP) creating a vicious cycle of chronic inflammation and vascular dysfunction